Structure and Agency in Critical Realism: How Society Shapes Us, and How We Shape Society

In the study of social phenomena, one of the most enduring debates revolves around the relationship between structure and agency. Are we shaped entirely by the social systems around us, or do we have the power to act independently and change those systems?

Critical realism, a philosophical framework developed by Roy Bhaskar, offers a compelling answer: structure and agency are not opposites but deeply interconnected forces that depend on each other. Let’s explore this relationship, why structure always comes first, and how they work together in real-world examples.

Structure: Refers to the social systems, institutions, norms, and rules that shape human behavior. Structures exist independently of individuals and provide the context within which we act. Examples include legal systems, economic systems, cultural norms, and organizations.
Agency: Refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently, make choices, and influence their environment. Agency involves intentionality, creativity, and the ability to challenge or transform structures.

The Interdependence of Structure and Agency

Critical realism rejects the idea that structure and agency are separate or opposing forces. Instead, it emphasizes their interdependence through Bhaskar’s transformational model of social action:

Structures Enable and Constrain Agency:

Structures provide the framework within which individuals act. They enable certain actions while constraining others.
Example: The legal system enables individuals to seek justice but constrains actions that violate the law.

Agency Reproduces or Transforms Structures:

Through their actions, individuals either reproduce existing structures or challenge and transform them.
Example: Voting in elections reproduces the democratic system, while participating in protests can lead to structural changes, such as new laws or policies.

Emergence:

Social structures emerge from the actions of individuals but take on a life of their own, influencing future actions.
Example: Capitalism emerged from individual economic activities but now shapes the behavior of individuals, businesses, and governments.

Why Structure Always Comes First

In critical realism, structure always comes first in the sense that individuals are born into pre-existing social systems that shape their opportunities, constraints, and ways of thinking. However, structures depend on agency to be maintained or changed. Without individuals acting within and upon them, structures would cease to exist. This mutual dependence is key to understanding social reality.

Real-World Examples of Structure and Agency

1. Employer and Employee

Structure: The workplace is governed by structures such as labor laws, organizational hierarchies, and economic systems. These structures define the roles of employers and employees, set wages, and regulate working conditions.
Agency: Employees exercise agency by choosing to work hard, negotiate for better pay, or unionize to demand better conditions. Employers exercise agency by setting policies, managing resources, and responding to employee demands.
Interplay: The workplace structure enables employers to hire and manage employees while constraining exploitative practices through labor laws. At the same time, employees can challenge and transform workplace structures through collective action, such as strikes or advocacy for new laws.

2. Speech and Language

Structure: Language is a social structure with rules, grammar, and vocabulary that pre-exist individuals. It shapes how we communicate and think.
Agency: Individuals exercise agency by using language creatively, inventing new words, or adapting language to new contexts (e.g., slang, technical jargon).
Interplay: Language enables communication and thought but constrains expression to its existing rules. At the same time, individuals can transform language over time, as seen in the evolution of dialects or the introduction of gender-neutral pronouns.

3. Education System

Structure: The education system includes schools, curricula, funding mechanisms, and policies that shape access to education and learning outcomes.
Agency: Students, teachers, and parents exercise agency by choosing to study, innovate teaching methods, or advocate for educational reforms.
Interplay: The education system enables individuals to gain knowledge and skills but may reproduce inequalities, such as through unequal access to resources. At the same time, individuals can challenge these inequalities through activism, policy advocacy, or innovative teaching practices.

4. Social Movements

Structure: Social and political systems create structures of power, inequality, and governance that shape societal norms and opportunities.
Agency: Activists exercise agency by organizing protests, advocating for policy changes, or raising awareness about social issues.
Interplay: Social movements emerge in response to structural inequalities but rely on individual agency to drive change. For example, the civil rights movement challenged racial segregation laws, transforming societal structures through collective action.

The Bigger Picture: Why This Matters

Understanding the interplay between structure and agency helps us see that:

Social change is possible: While structures shape our lives, they are not immutable. Through collective agency, individuals can challenge and transform oppressive or outdated systems.
Individual actions matter: Even small acts of agency can contribute to larger structural changes over time.
Structures are necessary: They provide the stability and order needed for society to function, but they must be continually evaluated and reformed to ensure fairness and justice.

In critical realism, structure and agency are two sides of the same coin. Structures provide the context for action, while agency ensures that structures are dynamic and adaptable. Whether it’s in the workplace, the education system, or social movements, the interplay between structure and agency shapes the world we live in. By understanding this relationship, we can better navigate social systems, challenge inequalities, and work toward a more just and equitable society.